Deidre Matte
Wai Chee Dimock
ENGL 433
26 April 2015
The Octopus and the Electric Sheep:
Investigations of Humanity through Technology in Naturalism and Science-Fiction
On the surface, naturalism and science-fiction seem to be entirely different genres.
Naturalism is a movement that originated in nineteenth-century Europe and quickly spread its
influence to the American literary scene. Born out of the profound socioeconomic changes set in
motion by the industrial revolution and the growth of capitalist practices, naturalist novels tend
to be rooted in determinism and realism as they explore the struggle of humans against the forces
that shape their circumstances and behavior as a society. Science-fiction is much more difficult
to define given that the genre is not firmly entrenched in a particular historical period, although it
certainly became more popularized during the twentieth century as the public became more
interested in space exploration, the possibilities of extra-terrestrial life, and technological
advances like robotics, all of which are popular features of science-fiction novels. Although
many works of science-fiction are very socially conscious, they are not constrained by the level
of realism that naturalist works strive for. Writers of science-fiction therefore have more
freedom to exercise their imaginations and explore the hypothetical impact of large-scale,
deterministic forces on specific aspects of the societies they are influencing, including the
philosophical, emotional, and ideological preoccupations of mankind. Rather than dwelling on
the forces shaping humanity, science-fiction novels can more freely examine the nature of
Frank Norris’s The Octopus and Philip K. Dick’s Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?,
works of American Naturalism and science-fiction, respectively, initially seem like they could
not be any more different. Set within the context of a real dispute that occurred between the
Southern Pacific Railroad and a group of wheat farmers in 1880, The Octopus tells the story of
ranchers that band together in an effort to put an end to the Pacific and Southwestern Railroad’s
stranglehold on economic and political affairs. Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? takes
place in Earth’s future and tells the story of Rick Deckard, a bounty hunter who is charged with
“retiring” androids that are hiding among humans. Norris’s novel is inspired by actual events and
allows for an in-depth exploration of the real impact they had on society, while Dick’s narrative
deals with hypothetical extremes that may not lend themselves to a social commentary that is as
obvious as one typically provided by a novel steeped in realism.
Despite their radically different settings, plots, and levels of realism, these novels are
surprisingly similar when they are stripped of the trappings of their respective genres. The most
prominent point of comparison for these works is their interest in technology. The Octopus
explores the effects of the expansion of the railroad, which is imagined as an octopus spreading
out its tentacles and encroaching on the landscape, while Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?
examines the implications of replicating life with machines in a world that has been ravaged by
war and radioactive contamination. Both novels explore how certain technological advances
change how humans are interacting with their environment and with each other. However, they
analyze these changes on different levels. The Octopus uses the railroad as a tool for examining
forces such as nature, the rise of the corporation as a powerful entity, and the economics of
supply and demand. Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, on the other hand, focuses more on
abstract notions of what it means to truly be human as characters attempt to cling to their
humanity in the novel’s post-apocalyptic landscape.
These differences in their respective applications of technology suggest that the
conventions of American naturalism may be better suited for Norris’s analysis of large-scale
forces that govern the world, especially since the genre was born in a period of history that was
shaped by tremendous social upheaval. While plenty of science-fiction novels, including Do
Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, address broad social issues within their imaginative
narratives that can be applied to the real world, the extraordinary situations enabled by the
genre’s conventions give Dick the ability to move beyond his own social context so he can have
more freedom to focus on how the social, political, and economic conditions he has imagined for
his novel may hypothetically operate on a character level. Dick’s novel is dominated by
characters that struggle with questions of morality and with ideologies concerning what
constitutes “human” behavior as their world becomes increasingly mechanized and the
distinction between real versus artificial life becomes less concrete.
Both the railroad and electric animals are intrinsically linked to the changing relationship
between mankind and the natural world. However, the roles these pieces of technology play in
the process of this change highlight differences in the novels’ thematic concerns regarding the
scale of technology’s impact. In The Octopus, the railroad is described as “the leviathan, with
tentacles of steel clutching into the soil, the soulless Force, the iron-hearted Power, the monster,
the Colossus, the Octopus,” (Norris 32). This monstrous creature that is encroaching on the
landscape is a catalyst for the changing relationship between mankind and the natural world, and
Norris chooses to examine the large-scale implications of these changes in his narrative. Mastery
over the land is the primary goal for a majority of the novel’s characters, and the presence of the
railroad has a tremendous impact on their success. The ranchers come into conflict with the
Pacific and Southwestern Railroad when their attempts to purchase the land they lease are
thwarted by the company, which is charging burdensome rates for land and freight in its own
attempt to increase its land holdings. The conflicts surrounding the use and possession of land
highlight the powerful economic force of supply and demand that is at work in the novel. The
growth of the railroad increases connectivity over land, which facilitates growth of markets with
needs that must be met. As Shelgrim, the president of the corporation, explains to Presley, “the
Wheat” must be carried to “the People” in order for the system to work and for the world to be
fed (Norris 371). The railroad is a crucial part of the economic forces at hand because it acts as
the conduit between the supply and the demand. The changes the railroad makes in the nature’s
physical landscape are therefore indicative of larger changes occurring in society’s economic
The railroad certainly exemplifies mankind’s attempt to master the environment and is a
major contributor to the growth of powerful economic forces, but it also serves to emphasize the
immense power the natural world holds over mankind despite its technological advances. The
railroad is directly linked to nature through various pieces of imagery that appear throughout the
novel. When Annie Derrick looks out over the land, she feels the immense power of nature and
She recognised the colossal indifference of nature, not hostile, even kindly and
friendly, so long as the human ant-swarm was submissive, working with it,
hurrying along at its side in the mysterious march of the centuries. Let, however,
the insect rebel, strive to make head against the power of this nature, and at once
it became relentless, a gigantic engine, a vast power, huge, terrible; a leviathan
with a heart of steel, knowing no compunction, no forgiveness, no tolerance;
crushing out the human atom with soundless calm, the agony of destruction
sending never a jar, never the faintest tremour through all that prodigious
mechanism of wheels and cogs. (Norris 115)
This passage recalls the end of Chapter I, which describes the railroad as a “symbol of vast
power, huge, terrible”, a “leviathan”, and an “iron-hearted Power” (Norris 32). Using similar,
and in some cases identical, imagery creates an obvious bond between the railroad and nature
within the text. The railroad seems like a monstrous force that the ranchers have very little
control over, and through describing nature in a similar fashion the narrator suggests that their
goals to master the land will also be unattainable. Annie Derrick’s view of nature also becomes
strangely mechanical at the end, indicating that the mechanization of society as exemplified by
the expansion of the railroad is affecting how humans perceive their surroundings.
This relationship between technology and the environment highlights the novel’s
exploration of the powerful forces that govern mankind. In the novel’s conclusion, the narrator
claims that “forces rather than men had locked horns in that struggle,” (Norris 420). Many
characters come to this realization, especially as they come to accept that individual efforts to
halt the railroad’s progress are pointless. Shelgrim’s philosophy about the nature of the railroad’s
expansion is an elaboration of the narrator’s claim and it explains why men like Magnus Derrick
are better off joining the railroad rather than opposing it. Shelgrim boldly claims that “Railroads
build themselves” because they operate according to forces that are out of man’s control (Norris
371). Much of his explanation has to do with the force formed by the laws of supply and
demand, but the natural world is intrinsically linked to this economic viewpoint. Nature, a
powerful force in its own right, is cooperating with the economic laws that are transforming the
world’s markets, making these forces even more unstoppable. The railroad is crucial for this
system because it facilitates the relationship between these forces through the transportation of
nature in the form of wheat. The railroad’s link to the forces governing society therefore makes
this particular technological development the perfect tool for the novel’s investigation of
technology’s broader impact on mankind.
While the railroad contributes to a changing landscape within The Octopus, the electric
animals in Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? are developed for an environment that has
already been irrevocably altered. The radioactive fallout from World War Terminus has ravaged
the landscape and is gradually diminishing the health of those who remain on the planet (Dick
15). The novel pays particularly close attention to the widespread extinction of animals and how
society has adapted to the scarcity of various creatures. Everyone seems to own a copy of
Sidney’s Animal & Fowl Catalogue, which keeps subscribers updated on the population of
animals and their market value (Dick 10). Those who cannot afford a real animal can purchase
an electric substitute, which still have to be carefully maintained and can often pass as real
animals due to the high level of detail that goes into making them. When Mr. Pilsen’s cat dies,
his wife opts to buy an electric cat in the hopes of replacing the pet without her husband noticing
(Dick 81) and Rick Deckard’s neighbor does not realize that Rick’s sheep is electric until the
control panel is revealed to him (Dick 11). The engineers of these electric animals were clearly
striving for authenticity as they worked to replace the creatures lost to environmental disaster.
However, the development of electric animals is much more than a response to the effects
of environmental change. In the case of the cat, Mrs. Pilsen is initially resistant to the idea of
purchasing an electric replacement, but she eventually gives in and orders an electric cat (Dick
81). As evidenced by his persistent pleading for his neighbor’s colt, Rick clearly wants a real
animal of his own (Dick 11). Alas, he has settled for an electric sheep in the meantime. The fact
that people would rather have a fake animal than no animal at all highlights their need to have
something to care for in a world that has become so desolate. The environment of the novel is
physically isolating; Isidore lives in a “deteriorating, blind building of a thousand uninhabited
apartments” (Dick 20), and the radioactive dust contaminating the planet has caused many
people to migrate to Mars (Dick 18). More importantly, the world is emotionally isolating. There
is a notable lack of children, presumably due in part to the effect of the dust on fertility, and Rick
and his wife, Iran, rely on mood organs to artificially regulate their emotions (Dick 3). As
demonstrated by how Rick and Iran’s eventual acquisition of a real goat supposedly cures their
depression, owning and caring for an animal is emotionally satisfying (Dick 172). Although they
are not perfect substitutes, electric animals are created and purchased out of a desire to simulate
this emotional connection between humans and the creature they care for, which would be
particularly appealing in a world where procreation has been hindered.
This emotional implications of caring for an animal, whether it is real or electric, is
intrinsically linked to the definition of human behavior that is propagated throughout the novel.
The defining characteristic of humanity is empathy; Mercerism, society’s primary ideology,
stresses the importance of empathy and even involves a routine fusion of mankind’s thoughts and
emotions through a special machine known as an “empathy box” (Dick 21). The test Rick
administers in order to determine whether or not a person is actually an android is the “Voigt-
Kampff Empathy Test”, which is considered effective because it is widely believed that an
android, “no matter how gifted as to pure intellectual capacity,” cannot understand the fusion
experienced by followers of Mercerism via the empathy boxes (Dick 30). Since caring for
another creature is one of the best ways to demonstrate one’s empathy, it is crucial that everyone
has an animal of some kind so this essential trait can be cultivated.
Although the emotional satisfaction of the individual is a major reason why electric
animals are so popular, the broader social implications should not be discounted. Barbour’s
reasoning for why he will not share the true nature of Rick’s sheep with the neighbors is very
enlightening about the values upheld by this post-apocalyptic world:
But they’ll look down on you. Not all of them, but some. You know how people
are about not taking care of an animal; they consider it immoral and anti-
empathic. I mean, technically it’s not a crime like it was right after W.W.T., but
the feeling’s still there. (Dick 13)
Keeping up appearances is a crucial part of owning an animal and is yet another reason why an
individual would choose to buy an electric version if he or she could not afford a real one. In
order for Rick to be a functioning member of this empathy-centric society, he must give the
impression that he is dedicated to caring for another life, even if looking after an electric sheep is
While electric animals are linked to a widespread preoccupation with demonstrations of
empathy aimed toward preserving humanity in Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, the
railroad is more closely related to how individuality and interpersonal relationships built on traits
like empathy are gradually giving way to the goals of the various collectives formed in The
Octopus. The most dominant group entity that emerges in this novel takes the form of the
corporation. The activities of the railroad are overseen by the Pacific and Southwestern Railroad,
a corporation that has come to dominate most of region’s economic and political activities. Since
it controls the land leased to the ranchers and it determines the freight rates charged to the
ranchers that ship their wheat to other areas to be sold, the corporation plays a large role in the
ranchers’ inability to make their business more profitable. The corporation seems to have a hand
in everything, and it does not show any sign of slowing down its expansion. S. Behrman, a
prominent agent for the railroad, demonstrates very little empathy for the ranchers; he fails to
demonstrate an understanding of how the actions of the corporation he is relentlessly promoting
is ruining the livelihoods of a group of his fellow human beings. Rather than dwelling on the
suffering of his neighbors, he instead chooses to focus on how the railroad will benefit society on
a larger scale. Unfortunately for Behrman, his ideology of the “greater good” and his lack of
empathy get turned around on him. Since the corporation is much larger than the actions and
intentions of a single man, Behrman’s death at the end of the novel will probably have little to no
effect on the operations of the corporation. In a similar vein, Shelgrim’s unexpected
demonstration of kindness toward the struggling employee will also have very little influence
over the corporation’s reputation as a profit-mongering company that does not care about the
needs of individual people. The goals and actions of the group eventually come to overshadow
those of the people that compose it, a process that may unfortunately extinguish basic human
characteristics such as empathy, sympathy, and demonstrations of friendship that once defined
The ranchers realize that they cannot take down the powerful corporation down as
individuals, so they form the League in an effort to combat the railroad’s widespread influence.
The ranchers discover that the land they lease from the Pacific and Southwestern Railroad is
being sold at a much higher price than originally promised; the corporation will profit more in
the long run if it can continue to supervise the activities of this land, and its access to the
property will also make it easier to expand the “tentacles” of the railroad. Tired of seeing the
ranchers oppressed by the encroachment of the railroad and the entity that owns it, Osterman
delivers an impassioned call to action. “‘Organization,’ he shouted, ‘that must be our watchword.
The curse of the ranchers is that they fritter away their strength. Now, we must stand together…I
call for the League,’” (Norris 177). Osterman recognizes that the men will be much more
powerful if they pool their strengths and resources into a group, an idea that has allowed the
corporation to accumulate so much influence over the region’s affairs. The similarities between
the founding principles of these two groups are highlighted by the metaphor used to describe the
entity suddenly created by the ranchers. The League is “a vague engine, a machine with which to
fight,” (Norris 177). Likening this group of people to an engine and a machine echoes the very
force they are trying to combat: the “terror of steel and steam” that is increasingly infringing on
their land and their livelihoods.
In its fight against the railroad for what it perceives to be the good of the collective, the
League does exactly what it demonizes the corporation for doing. It puts the interests of the
group above the welfare of individual lives, no matter the cost. Osterman calls for a “vast
organisation, banded together to death,” and unfortunately this is exactly what happens (Norris
177). The conflict turns violent and many of the ranchers lose their lives in a shootout with
members of the railroad (Norris 336). Despite this loss, the League persists in its fight against the
railroad, leading to yet another demonstration of the collective being championed over the
individual. Ignoring any empathy for his desperation or any feelings of friendship they may have
for him, the members of the League publicly force Magnus Derrick from his leadership position
(Norris 361). A man who was once so highly respected by his fellow ranchers has been deemed a
liability now that the underhanded nature of his political dealings has been made public, so he is
cast out in an effort to remove the stain of scandal from the collective actions of the League.
Much like the workings of the forces of nature, the economy, and Shelgrim’s self-building
railroad, the operations of groups like the League and the corporation move beyond the control
of individual men; they themselves become inhuman forces as their quests to achieve their goals
force their members to become less concerned with demonstrations of humanity and morality
As demonstrated by the contrasting thematic concerns that dominate their respective
novels, Philip K. Dick and Frank Norris investigate different issues concerning humans and the
world they live in through the lens of technology. Norris provides an in-depth look at the
deterministic forces shaping society as well as the formation of groups that are dedicated to
preserving their own interests in the face of the changes brought on by these forces. However,
naturalism’s dedication to realism and determinism places some constraints on the narrative of
The Octopus. In its preoccupation with large-scale, machinelike forces, the novel sacrifices the
analysis of abstract ideological and philosophical concerns that are evident throughout Dick’s Do
Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?. Dick’s novel is certainly shaped by natural, economic, and
social forces similar to those that are at the forefront of The Octopus, but the narrative moves
beyond an exploration of these forces and examines how they have influenced abstract ideas
concerning the nature of humanity that are being dealt with at both the individual and the societal
level. Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? concerns itself with what it means to be human in
the face of such dramatic environmental, cultural, and technological change. The Octopus, on the
other hand, champions an investigation of what is driving the change over an analysis of
mankind’s moral and ideological response to change. The juxtaposition of the freedom to deal
with abstract philosophical issues in Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep with the realism and
determinism that shape The Octopus demonstrates how the significance of a concept, such as the
theme of technology that is so prevalent in these two novels, can be dramatically altered
according to the generic conventions governing a narrative.